Visualizing the last millennium of South Asian History
The history of the Indian Subcontinent goes back five millennia with the formation of the Indus Valley Civilization in 3000 BCE. The subcontinent has seen countless kingdoms and empires emerge across the land, only to eventually decline and be replaced by a new power, often through more resourceful or innovative means. This article focuses on the last millennium of history, identifying the major powers that existed on the subcontinent and the major powers had would overtake them, either by conquest or an internal break up.
Note: A sankey diagram is used to show the transition of power between kingdoms and dynasties across the millennium. The diagram should be read left to right, and if the colors between two connected nodes are the same, then that indicates that the succeeding kingdom is adopting the former’s institutions. If the colors are not the same, this indicates that a kingdom had rebelled and gained territory or that it had conquered the former's territory. Not all Kingdoms and States from the last millennium are listed in the diagrams.
Part 1: Early 1000s to 1290 (Ghaznavid to Mamluk Dynasty)
At the onset of the year 1000, India consisted of various regional powers, many of which were caused by the breakup of larger empires, like the Gurjar and Rashtrakuta. The Western Chalukya would be the main successors of the Rashtrakuta kingdom. In this period, the Chola Empire would expand far from its original Southern India territory to capture much of the eastern coastline and even expand into some (modern-day) Indonesian territories. Over time they would end up losing their gained territory, and then get replaced by the Pandya Kingdom in the 13th century.
The history of Northern India and Central Asia would tell a different story. The Ghaznavid Empire was a Persian empire that gained its independence from an older Samanid Empire (998). They would go off to conquer Multan and some territory from the Gurjar Dynasty. After about 190 years of Ghaznavid rule in Persia and the Indian Subcontinent, the Ghurid Dynasty would rise from being a regional power in modern-day Afghanistan and completely overtake the Ghaznavid Empire (1186), annexing their territory and expanding even further into India (ie Pala Kingdom in the Bengal, and the Gurjar Dynasty and Chauhan Kingdom in North India). Upon the assassination of their king in 1206, the Ghurid Empire would split into pieces, with princes competing for power in the Persian regions of the Empire, and various Turkic Slave-Generals competing for power in the Indian part of the kingdom. The Delhi Sultanate (Mamluk Dynasty) would emerge in India as a consequence to this power struggle and would stretch from the regions of modern-day Pakistan, through parts of North India and modern-day Bangladesh. The Delhi Sultanate as an institution would last until 1526, but the Mamluk Dynasty would only hold power until 1290, after which the Khalji Dynasty replaced them as rulers of the Delhi Sultanate.
Part 2: 1290s to 1414 — Delhi Sultanate (Mamluk to Sayyid)
The 1290s ushered in a new dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate. In their short reign of 30 years, the Khaljis would expand the borders of the Delhi Sultanate westward and southward and engage in many invasions into the south. During this period, the Khalji dynasty successfully halted any invasion attempts by the Mongol Empire, and implemented many revenue, land, and military reforms in the Delhi Sultanate that lasted well into the following centuries. In 1320, a new dynasty, the Tughlaqs, defeated and replaced the Khalji Dynasty.
The Tughlaqs would rule for about 93 years, conquering and annexing most of India during its time, but subsequently would lose much of its territory to rebellion and civil war. The most notable kingdoms to break away from the Delhi Sultanate (Tuglaq) were the Vajayanagara Empire (1336), Bahmani Sultanate (1347) in the south, and the Bengal Sultanate (1342) in the East.
The Tughlaq dynasty reached its end during the invasion of Delhi by the Timurid Empire(1398), marking the first time that the Indian subcontinent was successfully invaded by any Mongol Empire or any of its successor states. Many previous vassal kingdoms and regional states would gain their independence, while the Sayyid Dynasty would take over the Delhi Sultanate (1414) at the end of Timurid occupation.
Part 3: 1414 to 1526: Delhi Sultanate (Sayyid to Lodi Dynasty)
We see few but significant changes occur in the northern, western and eastern parts of India during this time period.
The Lodi Dynasty emerged as a powerful military force in the Punjab region and eventually took control over the Delhi Sultanate after the Sayyid Dynasty voluntarily abdicated the throne. In their time, they reabsorbed the Jaunpur Sultanate that sits in (modern-day) North-East India but would lose some territory to the Bikaner Kingdom to the west. After about 75 years of ruling the Delhi Sultanate, the Lodi Dynasty would be replaced by the newly budding Mughal Empire after the Battle of Panipat (1526).
On the west side, the Gujrat Sultanate would annex the territories of the Kandesh Sultanate, whereas on the east side, the Gajapati Empire (Orissa) would replace the Kalinga Kingdom and annex the Reddi Kingdom.
The Southern region of Hindustan would tell a different story. The Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani Sultanate would engage in fierce competition throughout their existence. Between 1490 and 1520, various regions would rebel against the Bahmani Sultanate, carving out their own territory. These newly independent kingdoms, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar, Golconda, and Bidar would be called “Deccan Sultanates” and would exist until the 17th century.
During this time, India gets introduced to the Portuguese in 1498 when Vasco de Gamo reached Calicut for the first time after circumnavigating the Cape of Good Hope. By 1510, the Portuguese would go on to capture Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate and would hold it until 1961. Several other smaller Portuguese colonies were established along the coast of India that spanned from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal.
Part 4: 1526 to 1707 — The Rise and Zenith of the Mughals
This era in history is dominated by the Mughal Empire. In 1526, the Mughal Empire captures Delhi after defeating the Lodi dynasty. Shortly after, they were temporarily displaced by the Suri Dynasty between the years 1529 and 1555. The founder of the Suri Dynasty, Sher Shah Suri, implemented reforms that can still be seen today, such as introducing the “rupee” which is nominally used in many countries. His administration style was even documented by the Mughal Empire and used in their own administration. Upon their return, the Mughal Empire would go off to conquer almost all of India during the next 181 years. The Mughals reach their zenith by 1707 after conquering the remaining Deccan Sultanates and the remnants of the Vijaynagara Empire.
The Vijaynagara Empire and the Deccani Sultanates would also engage in fierce competition over South Indian territory, much like their Bahmani predecessor. The ultimate victors of this rivalry are the Bijapur and Golkonda Sultanates, with their defeat and demise of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1648 causing many smaller kingdoms, such as the Mysore Kingdom, to gain their independence.
The Maratha Empire emerged during this period. Originally as a military force from within the Bijapur Sultanate, they began to raid and conquer territory from the Bijapur Sultanate and parts of the Mughal territory in the south.
The Mughal Empire would quickly disintegrate with various parties vying for territory and power.
Part 5: 1707 to 1800 — Mughal Collapse, Independent Kingdoms, and British Ventures
This epoch marks the rapid Mughal deterioration with territory being lost to a growing Maratha Confederacy, the Durrani Empire, and the various regional kingdoms gaining their virtual independence. Historians cite the decline due to over-expansion of territory and treasury budget, a succession crisis of ineffective and weak rulers, corruption within the government, and defeat in major key battles.
One of the early significant defeats was Nader Shah’s invasion of Delhi in 1738. The western territory was annexed, and notable treasure was looted from the Mughal capital such as the Peacock Throne, Koh-i-Noor, and Daria-i-Noor diamond. This event is commonly juxtaposed with Timur’s invasion of Delhi. The Durrani Empire (1747) emerged during this time in response to the power vacuum left behind after the death of Nader Shah. By the 1760s, the Durrani Empire had expanded to encompass the territories of modern-day Afghanistan, parts of Central Asia, and Pakistan, reaching far into the Punjab and Kashmir regions.
The Maratha Confederacy had captured huge swaths of land in Western, Central, and Eastern India in the early 1700s during major victories against the Mughal Empire and would reach its zenith in 1758 with their conquest of Peshawar. They would have successive clashes with the expanding Durrani Empire, ultimately leading to the Third Battle of Panipat(1761). Their defeat would halt their expansion for the next few decades but by 1771, the Maratha Confederacy became the protectorates of the Mughal throne. They would continue to act as a major powerhouse within the subcontinent until being defeated and displaced by the British EIC in the 19th century.
Many regional kingdoms gained their virtual independence from the Mughal Empire. They are the Kingdom of Mysore (briefly Sultanate of Mysore), Hyderabad State (1724), Carnatic Sultanate(1710), Bengal Subah (1717), Kingdom of Rohilkhand(1721), Awadh State (1722), and many others. Though tributaries of the Mughal empire, many of these kingdoms would compete with each other, the Maratha Empire and the British EIC over land and resources in the Subcontinent.
During this time, the subcontinent sees a spillover of European competition (7 Years War, War of Austrian Succession, Carnatic War, Napoleonic War) and a drastic expansion of power by British EIC. The Battle of Plassey (1765) marks a turning point in the history of the subcontinent. Following their victory, British were granted the right over revenue collection (“Diwan”) in Bengal and Behar by the Mughal Empire, which in turn allowed them to finance the rest of their expansion. While the British EIC was gaining territory during this period, British Government would lose their territory and revenue in the American colonies following the American Revolution (1777).
Several other kingdoms fight against the British in a series of battles. The First Anglo-Maratha War, Anglo-Mysore Wars, and Carnatic Wars took place during this time, ultimately leaving the British as victors at the end of the 19th century. Interestingly enough, Charles Cornwallis, a British General who was defeated in the American Revolution (1782) was reassigned to India and took part in the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789).
At the end of the century, the British establish a strong base camp with control over Bengal and a large part of Southern India with the Hyderabad State entering into a subsidiary alliance in 1798, and the Kingdom of Mysore becoming a Princely State in 1799.
Part 6: 1800 to 1970 — British Consolidation and Colonial Independence
This era of history is one that we’re all more familiar with, mainly because we see the formation of the modern states of Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan.
At the beginning of the 1800s, the British EIC were able to subdue the Maratha Empire (1819) and Awadh State (1816) into a subsidiary alliance. They continued their conquest in the north and became the protectorate of the Mughals and had eventually either annexed or established princely states across the majority of the subcontinent. What remained were kingdoms to the West, namely the emerging Sikh Empire, the Durrani Empire, and Sindh.
An independent Sikh Confederacy had emerged in the early 1700s during the decline of the Mughals. Throughout the 18th century, they engaged in military conflicts against the Durrani Afghans and the Mughals but by the end of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, had made substantial gains. The various “Misls” (or sovereign states) of the Sikh Confederacy began to unify in the early 1800s and form the concept of the Sikh Empire. The Sikh Empire would continue to compete with the Durrani Empire, eventually capturing Peshawar (1823), Kashmir (1819), Multan (1818), and even gaining the Koh-i-Noor diamond (1813). The expansion of the Sikh Empire collided with the expanding British EIC in the “Great Game”, eventually resulting in their defeat and complete annexation of Jummu and Kashmir (1846) and then Punjab and Peshawar (1849). During this time, the Koh-i-Noor diamond would change hands again and become part of the British Crown Jewels.
Following the Rebellion of 1857 (also called the Sepoy Rebellion and the First War of Independence), the British EIC ended the Mughal Empire by exiling the last Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, to Burma. The EIC then transferred its rule over to the British government, giving rise to the British Raj. The British Crown brought an end to Mughal rule, styling themselves as “Emperor” and “Empress” of India as a continuation of Imperial rule. The expansion of the British Raj continued up to 1893, following the second Afghan-Anglo War with the establishment of the Durrand line, with Britain annexing parts of Eastern Afghanistan and using it as a buffer zone.
Following the rise of Independence Movements and the aftermath of WWII, Pakistan and India gained their independence in 1947 and Bangladesh later gained its independence from Pakistan in 1971 following the “Bangladesh War of Independence”.
The story of the subcontinent starts with the formation of the Indus Valley civilization (BC 3000) and goes through an unimaginable series of changes from within and beyond the blurred borders of the region. The story continues to this day.
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